customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the
9th and 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of
structuring society around relationships
derived from the
holding of land in exchange for service or labour.
Although derived from the Latin word feodum or feudum
(fief), [1] then in use, the term feudalism and the system it
describes were not conceived of as a formal political
system by the people living in the Middle Ages. In its
classic definition, by François-Louis Ganshof (1944), [2]
feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and military
obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around
the three key concepts of lords , vassals and fiefs.[2]
A broader definition of feudalism, as described by Marc
Bloch (1939), includes not only the obligations of the
warrior nobility but also those of all three estates of the
realm: the nobility, the clergy, and the peasantry bound by
manorialism ; this is sometimes referred to as a "feudal
society". Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's
"The Tyranny of a Construct" (1974) and Susan
Reynolds 's Fiefs and Vassals (1994), there has been
ongoing inconclusive discussion among medieval
historians as to whether feudalism is a useful construct
for understanding medieval society. [3][4][5][6][7]
Definition
There is no commonly accepted modern definition of
feudalism, at least among scholars. [3][6] The adjective
feudal was coined in the 17th century, and the noun
feudalism , often used in a political and propaganda
context, was not coined until the 19th century, [3] from the
French féodalité (feudality ), itself an 18th-century creation.
In a classic definition by François-Louis Ganshof (1944),
[2] feudalism describes a set of reciprocal legal and
military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving
around the three key concepts of lords , vassals and fiefs,
[2] though Ganshof himself noted that his treatment
related only to the "narrow, technical, legal sense of the
word".
A broader definition, as described in Marc Bloch 's Feudal
Society (1939), [8] includes not only the obligations of the
warrior nobility but those of all three estates of the realm:
the nobility, the clergy, and those living by their labour,
most directly the peasantry bound by manorialism ; this
order is often referred to as "feudal society", echoing
Bloch's usage.
Since the publication of Elizabeth A. R. Brown's "The
Tyranny of a Construct" (1974) [4] and Susan Reynolds 's
Fiefs and Vassals (1994), [5] there has been ongoing
inconclusive discussion among medieval historians as to
whether feudalism is a useful construct for understanding
medieval society. [3][6][9]
Outside a European context, the concept of feudalism is
often used only by analogy (called semi-feudal ), most often
in discussions of feudal Japan under the shoguns and
sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia .[10]
However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further,
seeing feudalism (or traces of it) in places as diverse as
ancient Egypt , the Parthian empire, the Indian
subcontinent and the Antebellum and Jim Crow American
South. [10]
The term feudalism has also been applied—often
inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies
where institutions and attitudes similar to those of
medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. [11] Some
historians and political theorists believe that the term
feudalism has been deprived of specific meaning by the
many ways it has been used, leading them to reject it as a
useful concept for understanding society. [3][4]
Etymology
Herr Reinmar von Zweter , a 13th-century
Minnesinger , was depicted with his noble
arms in Codex Manesse.
The term "féodal" was used in 17th-century French legal
treatises (1614) [12][13] and translated into English legal
treatises as an adjective, such as "feodal government".
In the 18th century, Adam Smith, seeking to describe
economic systems, effectively coined the forms "feudal
government" and "feudal system" in his book Wealth of
Nations (1776). [14] In the 19th century the adjective
"feudal" evolved into a noun: "feudalism". [14] The term
feudalism is recent, first appearing in French in 1823,
Italian in 1827, English in 1839, and in German in the
second half of the 19th century. [14]
The term "feudal" or "feodal" is derived from the medieval
Latin word feodum . The etymology of feodum is complex
with multiple theories, some suggesting a Germanic origin
(the most widely held view) and others suggesting an
Arabic origin. Initially in medieval Latin European
documents, a land grant in exchange for service was
called a beneficium (Latin). [15] Later, the term feudum , or
feodum , began to replace beneficium in the documents. [15]
The first attested instance of this is from 984, although
more primitive forms were seen up to one-hundred years
earlier. [15] The origin of the feudum and why it replaced
beneficium has not been well established, but there are
multiple theories, described below. [15]
The most widely held theory is put forth by Marc Bloch .
[15][16][17] Bloch said it is related to the Frankish term
*fehu-ôd , in which *fehu means "cattle" and -ôd means
"goods", implying "a moveable object of value." [16][17]
Bloch explains that by the beginning of the 10th century it
was common to value land in monetary terms but to pay
for it with moveable objects of equivalent value, such as
arms, clothing horses or food. This was known as feos , a
term that took on the general meaning of paying for
something in lieu of money. This meaning was then
applied to land itself, in which land was used to pay for
fealty, such as to a vassal. Thus the old word feos
meaning movable property changed little by little to feus
meaning the exact opposite: landed property. [16][17] This
Germanic origin theory was also shared by William Stubbs
in the 19th century. [15][18]
Another theory was put forward by Archibald R. Lewis .[15]
Lewis said the origin of 'fief' is not feudum (or feodum), but
rather foderum , the earliest attested use being in
Astronomus 's Vita Hludovici (840). [19] In that text is a
passage about Louis the Pious that says annona militaris
quas vulgo foderum vocant, which can be translated as
"Louis forbade that military provender (which they
popularly call "fodder") be furnished.." [15]
Another theory by Alauddin Samarrai suggests an Arabic
origin, from fuyū (the plural of fay , which literally means
"the returned", and was used especially for 'land that has
been conquered from enemies that did not fight'). [15][20]
Samarrai's theory is that early forms of 'fief' include feo ,
feu , feuz , feuum and others, the plurality of forms strongly
suggesting origins from a loanword . Indeed, the first use
of these terms is in Languedoc , one of the least Germanic
areas of Europe and bordering Muslim Spain. Further, the
earliest use of feuum (as a replacement for beneficium )
can be dated to 899, the same year a Muslim base at
Fraxinetum ( La Garde-Freinet ) in Provence was
established. It is possible, Samarrai says, that French
scribes, writing in Latin, attempted to transliterate the
Arabic word fuyū (the plural of fay ), which was being used
by the Muslim invaders and occupiers at the time,
resulting in a plurality of forms – feo, feu, feuz, feuum and
others – from which eventually feudum derived. Samarrai,
however, also advises to handle this theory with care, as
Medieval and Early Modern Muslim scribes often used
etymologically "fanciful roots" in order to claim the most
outlandish things to be of Arabian or Muslim origin.[20]
History
Feudalism, in its various forms, usually emerged as a
result of the decentralization of an empire: especially in
the Carolingian empires, which lacked the bureaucratic
infrastructure [ clarification needed ] necessary to support
cavalry without the ability to allocate land to these
mounted troops. Mounted soldiers began to secure a
system of hereditary rule over their allocated land and
their power over the territory came to encompass the
social, political, judicial, and economic spheres. [21]
These acquired powers significantly diminished unitary
power in these empires. Only when the infrastructure
existed to maintain unitary power—as with the European
monarchies—did Feudalism begin to yield to this new
power structure and eventually disappear.[21]
Classic feudalism
See also Feudalism in England , Feudalism in the Holy
Roman Empire and Examples of feudalism
The classic François-Louis Ganshof version of feudalism
[3][2] describes a set of reciprocal legal and military
obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around
the three key concepts of lords , vassals and fiefs. A lord
was in broad terms a noble who held land, a vassal was a
person who was granted possession of the land by the
lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the
use of the fief and the protection of the lord, the vassal
would provide some sort of service to the lord. There were
many varieties of feudal land tenure, consisting of military
and non-military service. The obligations and
corresponding rights between lord and vassal concerning
the fief form the basis of the feudal relationship. [2]
Vassalage
Homage of Clermont-en-Beauvaisis
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had
to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal
and symbolic ceremony called a commendation
ceremony , which was composed of the two-part act of
homage and oath of fealty . During homage, the lord and
vassal entered into a contract in which the vassal
promised to fight for the lord at his command, whilst the
lord agreed to protect the vassal from external forces.
Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the
fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also
refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the
commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an
oath follows homage. [22]
Once the commendation ceremony was complete, the
lord and vassal were in a feudal relationship with agreed
obligations to one another. The vassal's principal
obligation to the lord was to "aid", or military service.
Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by
virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was
responsible to answer calls to military service on behalf of
the lord. This security of military help was the primary
reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In
addition, the vassal could have other obligations to his
lord, such as attendance at his court, whether manorial,
baronial, both termed court baron , or at the king's court.
[23]
France in the late 15th century: a mosaic
of feudal territories
It could also involve the vassal providing "counsel", so
that if the lord faced a major decision he would summon
all his vassals and hold a council. At the level of the
manor this might be a fairly mundane matter of
agricultural policy, but also included sentencing by the
lord for criminal offences, including capital punishment in
some cases. Concerning the king's feudal court, such
deliberation could include the question of declaring war.
These are examples; depending on the period of time and
location in Europe, feudal customs and practices varied;
see examples of feudalism.
The "Feudal Revolution" in France
In its origin, the feudal grant of land had been seen in
terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal, but
with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary
holdings, the nature of the system came to be seen as a
form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the
historian Marc Bloch ). The 11th century in France saw
what has been called by historians a "feudal revolution" or
"mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that
was unlike the development of feudalism in England or
Italy or Germany in the same period or later: [24] counties
and duchies began to break down into smaller holdings
as castellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local
lands, and (as comital families had done before them)
lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide range of
prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the
highly profitable rights of justice, but also travel dues,
market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use
the lord's mill, etc. [25] (what Georges Duby called
collectively the " seigneurie banale " [26] ). Power in this
period became more personal. [27]
This "fragmentation of powers" was not however
systematic throughout France, and in certain counties
(such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts
were able to maintain control of their lands into the 12th
century or later. [28] Thus, in some regions (like Normandy
and Flanders), the vassal/feudal system was an effective
tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to their
lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant
confusion, all the more so as vassals could and frequently
did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response
to this, the idea of a " liege lord " was developed (where the
obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the
12th century. [29]
End of European feudalism
Further information: Abolition of feudalism in France
Feudalism itself decayed and effectively disappeared in
most of Western Europe by about 1500, [30][31] partly
since the military power of kings shifted from armies
consisting of the nobility to professional fighters
(effectively reducing the nobility's power), but also
because the Black Death reduced the nobility's hold on
the lower classes. The system lingered on in parts of
Central and Eastern Europe as late as the 1850s. Russia
finally abolished serfdom in 1861. [32][33]
However, even when the original feudal relationships had
disappeared, there were many institutional remnants of
feudalism left in place. Historian Georges Lefebvre
explains how at an early stage of the French Revolution ,
on just one night of 4 August 1789 France abolished the
long-lasting remnants of the feudal order. It announced,
"The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system
entirely." Lefebvre explains:
Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the
release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more
than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most
of the income of the large landowners. [35] The majority
refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled.
Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer
paid the tithe to the church. [36]
Feudal society
Main article: Manorialism
Depiction of socage on the royal
demesne in feudal England, c. 1310
The phrase "feudal society" as defined by Marc Bloch [8]
offers a wider definition than Ganshof's and includes
within the feudal structure not only the warrior aristocracy
bound by vassalage, but also the peasantry bound by
manorialism, and the estates of the Church. Thus the
feudal order embraces society from top to bottom,
though the "powerful and well-differentiated social group
of the urban classes" came to occupy a distinct position
to some extent outside the classical feudal hierarchy.
Historiography
The idea of feudalism was unknown and the system it
describes was not conceived of as a formal political
system by the people living in the Medieval Period. This
section describes the history of the idea of feudalism, how
the concept originated among scholars and thinkers, how
it changed over time, and modern debates about its use.
Evolution of the concept
The concept of a feudal state or period, in the sense of
either a regime or a period dominated by lords who
possess financial or social power and prestige, became
widely held in the middle of the 18th century, as a result
of works such as Montesquieu's De L'Esprit des Lois
(1748; published in English as The Spirit of the Laws ), and
Henri de Boulainvilliers’s Histoire des anciens Parlements
de France (1737; published in English as An Historical
Account of the Ancient Parliaments of France or States-
General of the Kingdom, 1739). [14] In the 18th century,
writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism to
denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime , or
French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment
when writers valued reason and the Middle Ages were
viewed as the " Dark Ages ". Enlightenment authors
generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark
Ages" including feudalism, projecting its negative
characteristics on the current French monarchy as a
means of political gain. [37] For them "feudalism" meant
seigneurial privileges and prerogatives. When the French
Constituent Assembly abolished the "feudal regime" in
August 1789 this is what was meant.
Adam Smith used the term "feudal system" to describe a
social and economic system defined by inherited social
ranks, each of which possessed inherent social and
economic privileges and obligations. In such a system
wealth derived from agriculture, which was arranged not
according to market forces but on the basis of customary
labour services owed by serfs to landowning nobles. [38]
Marx
Karl Marx also used the term in the 19th century in his
analysis of society's economic and political development,
describing feudalism (or more usually feudal society or
the feudal mode of production ) as the order coming
before capitalism . For Marx, what defined feudalism was
the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy ) in their
control of arable land, leading to a class society based
upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these
lands, typically under serfdom and principally by means of
labour, produce and money rents. [39] Marx thus defined
feudalism primarily by its economic characteristics.
He also took it as a paradigm for understanding the
power-relationships between capitalists and wage-
labourers in his own time: ‘in pre-capitalist systems it was
obvious that most people did not control their own
destiny — under feudalism, for instance, serfs had to work
for their lords. Capitalism seems different because people
are in theory free to work for themselves or for others as
they choose. Yet most workers have as little control over
their lives as feudal serfs’. [40] Some later Marxist
theorists (e.g. Eric Wolf ) have applied this label to include
non-European societies, grouping feudalism together with
Imperial Chinese and pre-Columbian Incan societies as
'tributary'.
Later studies
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace
Round and Frederic William Maitland , both historians of
medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the
character of English society before the Norman Conquest
in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had brought
feudalism with them to England, while Maitland contended
that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain
before 1066. The debate continues today, but a
consensus viewpoint is that England before the Conquest
had commendation (which embodied some of the
personal elements in feudalism) while William the
Conqueror introduced a modified and stricter northern
French feudalism to England incorporating (1086) oaths of
loyalty to the king by all who held by feudal tenure, even
the vassals of his principal vassals (Holding by feudal
tenure meant that vassals must provide the quota of
knights required by the king or a money payment in
substitution).
In the 20th century, two outstanding historians offered
still more widely differing perspectives. The French
historian Marc Bloch , arguably the most influential 20th-
century medieval historian., [39] approached feudalism not
so much from a legal and military point of view but from a
sociological one, presenting in Feudal Society (1939;
English 1961) a feudal order not limited solely to the
nobility. It is his radical notion that peasants were part of
the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his
peers: while the vassal performed military service in
exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical
labour in return for protection – both are a form of feudal
relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society
can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were
centered on "lordship", and so we can speak usefully of a
feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly)
literature, and a feudal economy. [39]
In contradistinction to Bloch, the Belgian historian
François-Louis Ganshof defined feudalism from a narrow
legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal
relationships existed only within the medieval nobility
itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Qu'est-ce que la
féodalité? ("What is feudalism?", 1944; translated in
English as Feudalism). His classic definition of feudalism
is widely accepted today among medieval scholars, [39]
though questioned both by those who view the concept in
wider terms and by those who find insufficient uniformity
in noble exchanges to support such a model.
Although he was never formally a student in the circle of
scholars around Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre that came
to be known as the Annales School , Georges Duby was an
exponent of the Annaliste tradition. In a published version
of his 1952 doctoral thesis entitled La société aux XIe et
XIIe siècles dans la région mâconnaise ( Society in the 11th
and 12th centuries in the Mâconnais region), and working
from the extensive documentary sources surviving from
the Burgundian monastery of Cluny , as well as the
dioceses of Mâcon and Dijon , Duby excavated the complex
social and economic relationships among the individuals
and institutions of the Mâconnais region and charted a
profound shift in the social structures of medieval society
around the year 1000. He argued that in early 11th
century, governing institutions—particularly comital courts
established under the Carolingian monarchy—that had
represented public justice and order in Burgundy during
the 9th and 10th centuries receded and gave way to a
new feudal order wherein independent aristocratic knights
wielded power over peasant communities through strong-
arm tactics and threats of violence.
Challenges to the feudal model
In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown [4] rejected
the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false
sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the
current use of many, often contradictory, definitions of
feudalism , she argued that the word is only a construct
with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern
historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical
record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term
should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures
on medieval history entirely. [39] In Fiefs and Vassals: The
Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), [5] Susan Reynolds
expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some
contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology,
other historians have supported it and her argument.[39]
Reynolds argues:
Too many models of feudalism used for comparisons,
even by Marxists, are still either constructed on the
16th-century basis or incorporate what, in a Marxist
view, must surely be superficial or irrelevant features
from it. Even when one restricts oneself to Europe and
to feudalism in its narrow sense it is extremely
doubtful whether feudo-vassalic institutions formed a
coherent bundle of institutions or concepts that were
structurally separate from other institutions and
concepts of the time. [41]
The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western
societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to
those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed
(See Examples of feudalism). Japan has been extensively
studied in this regard. [42] Friday notes that in the 21st
century historians of Japan rarely invoke feudalism;
instead of looking at similarities, specialists attempting
comparative analysis concentrate on fundamental
differences. [43] Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the
term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific
meaning, leading some historians and political theorists to
reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. [39]
Richard Abels notes that "Western Civilization and World
Civilization textbooks now shy away from the term
'feudalism'." [44]
See also
Bastard
feudalism
Cestui que
English feudal
barony
Feudal duties
Feudalism in
the Holy Roman
Empire
Lehnsmann
Majorat
Neo-feudalism
Nulle terre sans
seigneur
Protofeudalism
Quia Emptores
Scottish feudal
barony
Statutes of
Mortmain
Suzerainty
Vassal
Military:
Knights Medieval
warfare
Non-European:
Fengjian
(Chinese)
Hacienda
Feudal Japan
Feudalism in
Pakistan
Indian
feudalism
Mandala
(political model)
Ziamet
Zemene
Mesafint
References
1. ^ feodum – see The Cyclopedic Dictionary of Law , by
Walter A. Shumaker, George Foster Longsdorf, pg. 365,
1901.
2. ^ a b c d e f François Louis Ganshof (1944). Qu'est-ce
que la féodalité . Translated into English by Philip Grierson
as Feudalism, with a foreword by F. M. Stenton, 1st ed.:
New York and London, 1952; 2nd ed: 1961; 3d ed: 1976.
3. ^ a b c d e f "Feudalism" , by Elizabeth A. R. Brown.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online .
4. ^ a b c d Brown, Elizabeth A. R. (October 1974). "The
Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of
Medieval Europe" . The American Historical Review. 79
(4): 1063–88. doi :10.2307/1869563 .
JSTOR 1869563 .
5. ^ a b c Reynolds, Susan, Fiefs and Vassals: The
Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1994 ISBN 0-19-820648-8
6. ^ a b c "Feudalism?" , by Paul Halsall . Internet
Medieval Sourcebook.
7. ^ "The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical
Essay" , by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky
University .
8. ^ a b Bloch, Marc, Feudal Society. Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two
volume. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961 ISBN
0-226-05979-0
9. ^ "The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical
Essay" , by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky
University .
10. ^ a b "Reader's Companion to Military History" .
Archived from the original on 2004-11-12.
11. ^ Cf. for example: McDonald, Hamish (2007-10-17).
"Feudal Government Alive and Well in Tonga" . Sydney
Morning Herald. ISSN 0312-6315 . Retrieved 2008-09-07.
12. ^ "Feudal (n.d.)" . Online Etymology Dictionary.
Retrieved September 16, 2007.
13. ^ Cantor, Norman F. The Civilization of the Middle
Ages . Harper Perennial , 1994.
14. ^ a b c d Fredric L. Cheyette. "FEUDALISM,
EUROPEAN." in New Dictionary of the History Of Ideas , Vol.
2, ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz, Thomas Gale 2005, ISBN
0-684-31379-0 . pp. 828–831
15. ^ a b c d e f g h i Meir Lubetski (ed.). Boundaries of the
ancient Near Eastern world: a tribute to Cyrus H. Gordon .
"Notices on Pe'ah, Fay' and Feudum" by Alauddin
Samarrai. Pg. 248–250 , Continuum International
Publishing Group, 1998.
16. ^ a b c Marc Bloch. Feudal Society, Vol. 1, 1964.
pp.165–66.
17. ^ a b c Marc Bloch. Feudalism, 1961, pg. 106.
18. ^ William Stubbs . The Constitutional History of England
(3 volumes), 2nd edition 1875–78, Vol. 1, pg. 251, n. 1
19. ^ Archibald R. Lewis . The Development of Southern
French and Catalan Society 718–1050 , 1965, pp. 76–77.
20. ^ a b Alauddin Samarrai . "The term 'fief': A possible
Arabic origin", Studies in Medieval Culture , 4.1 (1973), pp.
78–82.
21. ^ a b Gat, Azar. War in Human Civilization, New York:
Oxford University Press, 2006. pp. 332–343
22. ^ Medieval Feudalism , by Carl Stephenson . Cornell
University Press, 1942. Classic introduction to Feudalism.
23. ^ Encyc. Brit. op.cit. It was a standard part of the
feudal contract (fief [land], fealty [oath of allegiance], faith
[belief in God]) that every tenant was under an obligation
to attend his overlord's court to advise and support him;
Sir Harris Nicolas , in Historic Peerage of England , ed.
Courthope , p.18, quoted by Encyc. Brit, op.cit., p. 388: "It
was the principle of the feudal system that every tenant
should attend the court of his immediate superior"
24. ^ Chris Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome, p. 522-3.
25. ^ Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome , p. 518.
26. ^ Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome , p. 518.
27. ^ Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome , p.522.
28. ^ Wickham, p.523.
29. ^ Elizabeth M. Hallam. Capetian France 987–1328 ,
p.17.
30. ^ "The End of Feudalism" in J.H.M. Salmon, Society in
Crisis: France in the Sixteenth Century (1979
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